[The following is a presentation at the 26th Dickens Society Symposium (12-14 July 2021). Many thanks to Sean Grass, Professor of English at the Rochester Institute of Technology and President of the Dickens Society, for providing the list of speakers and sending along to them our invitation to their presentations to the Victorian Web. — George P. Landow.]

Introduction

Decorated initial M

his essay explains the resuklts of using computational linguistics to explore Dickens’s view on race in the travelogue Pictures from Italy (1846). Employing a corpus methodology from linguistics (Mahlberg 2013) alongside the lens of intersectionality (Hill Collins Sirma 2016) highlights the author’s view on race. The following linguistic analysis of the text provides evidence of Dickens’s encounter with the Italians, demonstrating that although he does not question any notions of higher or lower cultures, he i he shows openness when facing difference. Quantitative (Bondi Scott 2010) and qualitative analysis sheds new light on the author's strategies for describing otherness and identity. For example, the frequency and distribution of lexical items related to the noun “people” show Dickens’s intention to go beyond cultural stereotypes and offer insight into contemporary Italian society.

Dickens’s relationship with the concept of race still appears controversial. According to Peters (2013), there are “some blind spots and certain issues that people didn’t use to talk about.” For many aspects, the author’s attitude towards other races is one of superiority. Ackroyd (1990) claims that in modern terms, Dickens would be called a racist (of the most egregious kind), of course.

Many factors contributed to fuel the debate on race in mid-Victorian England: the rise of scientific racism, the expansion of the colonial project, the increasing instability of the conventional social hierarchy, anxieties about miscegenation, and changing ideas about what constitutes Englishness. According to Joshi (2011), “race was an unstable term in the nineteenth century, with new meanings emerging and colliding with older ones, challenging and challenged by principles of equality and justice.”

Li notices that Dickens expresses rather unpleasant racist views in “The Noble Savage” (1853); however, in The Mystery of Edwin Drood, his last unfinished novel, the author presents a substantial revision of his past racist stance, indicating his reconsideration of his past opinions about race and Empire. Ledger and Ferneaux (2011) suggest that the author was not a “Hunt or Knox” in matters of biological race and that his ugly caricatures of the Jew and savages, his rapid activation of the savage trope in contrast to noble Britons, and his cultural chauvinism lead toward nativism of the sort that played a crucial role in justifications of Empire.

Dickens’s views on race demand to be analyzed in context; his interest in the weakest and most needy seems in conflict with his presumed racist attitudes towards any kind of different ethnicity. Ledger and Ferneaux (2011) claim: “he never advocated any form of scientific racism, but he held extreme antipathy for non-European peoples, and steadfastly believed in their assimilation into Western culture.” Dickens’s interest in “the other” is wide and varied. A corpus-linguistic analysis of Pictures from Italy will help explore the author’s representation of the Italians.

Methodology: Keyness Research and Collocation Networks

Drawing on Mahlberg (2013), the first step in carrying out this research was the creation of two corpora, one made up of Pictures from Italy and the other of Dickens's other works. All texts have been retrieved from Project Gutenberg, which makes available a free online library. The corpora contain approximately 4.6 million words and have been processed with the aid of WordSmith Tools 6.0 (Scott 2012).

Keyness research (Scott 2012) displayed the centrality of the noun “people” in Pictures from Italy; in corpus linguistics, keyness is the quality a word or phrase has of being key (or centrally important) in its context. This method exhibits 121 occurrences of people and displays a positive keyness of 84.58%. This term expresses a pivotal concept and by building on Sinclair's interpretation of the Firthian concept of contextual meaning, according to which words enter “into meaningful relations with other words around them” (2004), the relationship of the noun “people” with other words to it related has been explored.

In corpus linguistics, a collocation is a sequence of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance, thus building meaning. The analysis of collocation networks clarifies lexical connections in a wider discourse about Dickens and the Italians. The collocations of the noun “people” displays the rich variety of adjectives the author uses to describe the Italians; they are depicted as “joyful”, “poor”, “ugly” and “sad”, some of them are “balanced”, “vital”, and “intelligent” and some others are “dirty”. In the texts, Dickens often highlights their positive qualities - “they are very kind and honest” - and praises their “very lively and fresh way”. He describes their good humor and sociability, their outgoing character, intelligence, and good attitude. The corpus research has also allowed noticing that they are frequently preceded by the pre-modifier “very.” He claims that some of them are “very relaxed,” “very good-natured”, “very conversational” and “good-humored”, and he appreciates the “very balanced, courteous and industrious” temperament of the Genoese, whom he seems to know better, given his extensive stay in this city.

Gestures

My computational research shows the relevant frequency of body part nouns, such as “hands,” and “face,” in Pictures from Italy, something unusual in a travel book. These data helped confirm the author’s interest in “the other,” and showed the prominent role of bodies and gestures in Dickens’s ideas of cultural identities. The noun “hands,” for example, occurs fifty-four times in Pictures from Italy; the author grasped the combination of hand movements and language which is at the basis of the Italians' way of communicating and attempts to explain their meanings. He notices that hand movements substitute and support language and are related to culture.

For example, the act of exchanging newspapers in the summer shadows of a pharmacy or smoking cigars slowly displays a supposed tendency of the Italians to be idle. Their stereotyped extroverted character is given by frequent representation of hand movements that emphasize verbal acts or by their way of clapping during feasts and religious rites. Hands, however, are not only related to a stereotyped idea of the Italians’ character and extroverted nature but also attempt to shape micro-worlds. Hands that play morra inform about popular class forms of entertainment as well as a supposed tendency for gaming and betting; yet the Pope's hands in the act of pouring blessed water during a religious service reveal Dickens’s interest in Catholic rituals. The focus on hand gestures also draws attention to people who live on the fringes of society, such as prisoners, whose hands cling to “the rusty bars” of a prison, or on well-off women and children playing in the streets. Dickens reports the Italians putting hands in their hair as a sign of dismay or features hands clapping or holding hats and sticks. He depicts hands holding candles in churches or in the act of holding other hands as a sign of solidarity. Hands express feelings and features of character. and shed light on the relationship between the Italians’ gestures and Dickens’s transcultural depiction of “the other.”

This computational research has also highlighted the relevant percentage of the nouns: “face” and “eyes” and qualitative analysis has allowed me to notice that they often emphasise the Italians' kindness and good manners. In Pictures from Italy, bodies and gestures are a highly satisfactory language where words do not avail; they provide essential information about Dickens’s encounter with new cultural paradigms. An example of the author’s transcultural views is also offered by the cicerone at the cemetery of Bologna. According to Sadrin, he appears a dignified presence in Pictures from Italy (Sadrin 1999). During their brief encounter, the man not only presents statues and tombs but establishes an intimate relationship with the traveler, pointing to the clod of earth where his five children are buried. The author reports the man’s gestures, words, and pauses.

“The poor people, Signore,” he said, with a shrug and a smile, and stopping to look back at me – for he always went on a little before and took off his hat to introduce every new monument. “Only the poor, Signore! It's very cheerful. It's very lively. How green it is, how cool! It's like a meadow! There are five,” – holding up all the fingers of his right hand to express the number, which an Italian peasant will always do, if it be within the compass of his ten fingers – “there are five of my little children buried there, Signore; just there; a little to the right. Well! Thanks to God! It's very cheerful. How green it is, how cool it is! It's quite a meadow!” He looked me very hard in the face, and seeing I was sorry for him, took a pinch of snuff (every Cicerone takes snuff), and made a little bow; partly in deprecation of his having alluded to such a subject, and partly in memory of the children and his favourite saint. It was as unaffected and as perfectly natural a little bow, as ever man made. Immediately afterward he took his hat off altogether, and begged to introduce me to the next monument; and his eyes and his teeth shone brighter than before. [70]

This complex portrait of the cicerone becomes paradigmatic of what Dickens seems to consider a human and social category. He highlights the connection between the man's gestures and culture, he claims that his way of using fingers to feature numbers and taking snuff is typical of every cicerone, and he reports that his shrug expresses his resignation to life events. He also notices that his gaze reveals his understanding of the bad feelings that his words provoked. The portray of the cicerone encompasses central traits of Mediterranean culture, such as sociability, empathy, and tendency to shorten the distance.

In Pictures from Italy bodies, and gestures matter at various levels. The peasant women who wash clothes in public tanks offer another example of the author’s vision of culture and race and reveal his ability to understand not only their social conditions but also grasp their mood. He always starts from physical details, he features “their naked feet and legs” and relates nudity to a primitive state of unrest and decay. Their act of washing has a symbolic meaning and turns into a claim of revenge for the “Fall of mankind.”

The Peasant Women, with naked feet and legs, are so constantly washing clothes, in the public tanks, and in every stream and ditch, that one cannot help wondering, in the midst of all this dirt, who wears them when they are clean. The custom is to lay the wet linen, which is being operated upon, on a smooth stone, and hammer away at it, with a flat wooden mallet. This they do, as furiously as if they were revenging themselves on dress in general for being connected with the Fall of Mankind. (47)

Dickens’s description of the washerwomen highlights their dignity despite the miserable living conditions in which they live and exhibits their strength and courage. In Italy, British travelers commonly recognized the value of classical and cultural heritage, but they were shocked by the poor living conditions of people and places. Unlike most British tourists, Dicikens instead shows openness when facing the Italians, and he attempts to investigate what had led what he calls “noble people” from the splendor of the past to such a state of misery and decay.

In the nineteenth century, the version of the Italians in circulation had established an iconography, emblematic representations that could be repeated or alluded to as a taxonomy, building a complex map of discourses about Italy (McAllister 2009). They were usually given a marginal role and even considered inappropriate if compared to the greatness of cities and landscapes. The author’s sense of cultural belonging led him to observe other cultures from a centric perspective, by operating a constant comparison with English customs and habits. Dickens, who questions multi-faceted aspects of Italian culture, notices differences from his home country, but he does not show an attitude of superiority. His attentive eye records every side of the new environment. For example, he observes the habit of binding the legs of children, which prevent them from crawling.

Dickens's relationship with “the other,” however, appears complex in Pictures from Italy and never superficial. Italian bodies speak a language within the language; their gestures provide information on the impact that the encounter with different cultural paradigms has on the author. The corpus research has displayed the significant role of bodies in the text and an intersectional interpretation of data has revealed that they are inscribed with culture. They contribute to showcasing a country where different strata coexist (Cubeta 2020). Dickens's analysis of Italian society composes gradually in Pictures from Italy. In the last chapter of the book the author questions the concept of the picturesque related to Italy and openly focuses on patterns of inequality and injustice operated by local governors. Dickens reshapes the image of the country and presents a more dignified view of the Italians. He expresses his disappointment for their miserable living conditions and love for the country which urges him to free the word from its conventional limits. Pictures from Italy attempts to highlight the Italians' heterogeneity and sheds light on their human dimension. The multiplicity of people featured in the book allows material for a social commentary; Dickens subverts the general construction of primitive people, closer to nature and instinctive and depicts them as “a people, naturally well-disposed, and patient, and sweet-tempered” (187).

In Dickens’s novels, once the reader knows what a character looks like, he also knows a great deal about him, the character is what he appears (McMaster 1987). Similarly, in Pictures from Italy, physiognomy and sketching techniques help interpret the author’s view of transnational identities. He presents “country”, “rich”, “poor”, and “all classes” people, everyday reality and historical background appear in the text without ever dissolving into one another. The concept of otherness is expressed through complexity. The author’s frequent reference to physical details helps understand his perception of “the other” and see how they are embedded with cultural meanings.

Dickens shows fairness when he describes Italian people, and he seems willing to explore their human dimension. Unlike other travelers, he highlights their strong points. Dickens declares his intention to keep away from picturesque representations and tries to feature differences within a broad, and often indefinite, category of Italians.

But, lovers and hunters of the picturesque, let us not keep too studiously out of view the miserable depravity, degradation, and wretchedness, with which this gay Neapolitan life is inseparably associated! It is not well to find Saint Giles's so repulsive, and the Porta Capuana so attractive. A pair of naked legs and a ragged red scarf, do not make ALL the difference between what is interesting and what is coarse and odious? [166]

Dickens focuses on human beings, he emphasizes the ugly and dark sides of people which sometimes may coincide with racial identities, however, what he seems more eager of is to highlight the pettiness sides of man. The Italians he features in the book go beyond racial stigmas. He offers a broad fresco that includes peoples and ethnicities. Differently from other travelers, in Pictures from Italy Dickens shows an attitude of openness, he notes differences, but his attitude is never disrespectful. What he sees in Italy is different from what he expects, and the miserable living conditions induce him to question the traditional concept of the picturesque that was usually related to Italy.

Pictures from Italy goes beyond travel writing conventions and investigates social identities in a framework of systemic inequalities (Hill Collins, Bilge 2016). In this travel book, just as in his fiction works, bodies come in all shapes, sizes, and permutations. He combines his private cultural understanding with an accurate portrayal of bodies and gestures and tries to free the country from preconceived notions about its inhabitants. Differently from other travel books, the Italians are not cumbersome, but the author depicts them as are carriers of a complex culture. Their bodies and gestures (Korte 1997) signal emotions, attitudes, and cultural variety.

Conclusions

In this paper, a corpus-based approach has helped to explore Dickens's encounter with the Italians as it appears in Pictures from Italy. This analysis, alongside an intersectional approach, has attempted to shed light on the writer's construction of “the other.” The author’s transnational disposition to shape other identities has been brought under critical scrutiny and his intention to feature political oppression, diversity, and privilege has been revealed (Cubeta 2020). Dickens not only does not erect boundaries between the British and the Italians but offers fresh opportunities to cross them.

In Dickens’s text, gesture provides a unique link between action and mental representation; the body and the representation of “the Other” operate in a relationship with each other. The Italian bodies are a multi-dimensional medium for the constitution of society. Dickens is concerned with social inequalities and oppressions but is also interested in understanding the nuances of Italian society, which appears complex in the pages of his book. Italian bodies are signifiers, they interact with the environment, encode, and create meaning. The wide gallery of the Italians depicted in the book, which is unusual when compared with travel genre conventions, sheds light on Dickens's view of heterogeneity class, age, and gender in Italy.

Dickens describes service personnel, couriers and ciceroni, as other travelers did, but he does not leave out the common man. He also includes his occasional traveling companions and the passers-by. He calls them by name “Signor Salvatore”, he records their expressions, smiles, glances, and posture. He departs from travel writing conventions and adopts a more personal and individual manner of presentation. He refuses to encapsulate the Italians into a homogeneous group and explores structures that help define transnational identities. Social categories are intrinsically linked to personal identities, as well as to wider institutional and structural systems.

In Italy, Dickens does not overlook anything. His eye is like a photographic plate that fixes every kind of detail and yields a perfectly precise negative. He holds a cracked mirror up to Italian society which produces distortions and exaggerations for the sake of social, moral, and aesthetic effects. Italy is explored from a multitude of angles and the reader is led to look beyond appearances and stereotypes.

This linguistic-computational analysis of Pictures from Italy has revealed Dickens's interest in Italians and has allowed us to observe his attitude in his encounters with “the Other.” He investigates various human and cultural aspects, to grasp cultural nuances that other travelers, even eminent ones, had overlooked, makes it possible to affirm that for Dickens the concept of race was distant from the Darwinian one but offers a new opportunity to explore the multiple facets of human nature. His critical eye and his ability to read the other regardless of cultural differences make it clear that although he was aware of the cultural strength of his country, the concept of man prevailed over everything.

Bibliography

Ackroyd Peter. Dickens. New York: Harper Colllins, 1990.

Bondi Marina, Scott Mike. Keyness in Texts. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2010.

Cubeta, Germana. Dickens and the Italians in “Pictures from Italy”. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.

Hill Collins, Patricia, Bilge Sirma. Intersectionality. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016.

Joshi, Priti. “Race.” In Dickens in Context. Eds. Sally Ledger and Holly Ferneaux. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [2011]: 297–299.

Korte, Barbara. Body Language in Literature. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.

Ledger Sally, Furneaux Holly. Charles Dickens in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Mahlberg, Michaela. Corpus Stylistics and Dickens’s Fiction. New York and London: Routledge, 2013.

McAllister, Annamarie. “A Pair of Naked Legs and a Ragged Red Scarf: An overview of Victorian Discourses on Italy in The Victorians and Italy. Literature, Travel, Politics and Art. Eds. Alessandro Vescovi, Luisa Villa, Paul Vita Milano: Polimetrica, 2009: 17-43.

McMaster, Juliet. Dickens the Designer. Hound Mills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London: MacMillan Press, 1987.

Peters, Laura. Dickens and Race. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013.

Sadrin, Annie. Dickens, Europe, and the New Worlds. USA: Palgrave, 1999.

Scott, Mike. WordSmith Tools version 6, Stroud: Lexical Analysis Software. 2012.

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Last modified 23 September 2010