This article has been peer-reviewed under the direction of Kristen Guest (University of Northern British Columbia) and Ronja Frank (Memorial University, St John's, Newfoundland). It forms part of the Equine Breed and the Making of Modern Identity project, funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
n the past two decades, research on the horse's role in shaping the industrial and cultural landscapes of the long nineteenth century have gained traction. Anne Norton Greene's image of a "symbiosis between steam and horses" (2) pointedly illustrates the fact that without the horse, the industrial revolution in its historical form would not have been possible, neither within Britain nor beyond it. While the texts reviewed in this section all account, in one way or another, for the intersectional dimensions of equine-based urban and energy infrastructures, their main focus lies on the horse's impact on industry, infrastructure, and economy.
F. M. L. Thompson's (1976, 1983) work on legal and economic engagements with equine power in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Britain in many ways lay the groundwork for more recent scholarship on the horse's central function as industrial motor and economic asset. Ann Norton Greene's Horses at Work (2008) and Clay McShane and Joel Tarr's The Horse in the City (2007) stand as two landmark studies that highlight the profoundly interdependent relationship between equine labour and the social, economic, and industrial transformation of North America in the long nineteenth century. Horses at Work focuses especially on human-equine entanglements in war and industry and examines engagements with the horse in face of scientific and technological advancements. In this framework, Norton Greene accounts for the deep embeddedness of the horse in discourses surrounding class, race, gender, and species. The Horse in the City looks especially to the impact of equine labour on the development of urban and rural infrastructures and policies. Positing the horse as a "critical force of transforming power" (83), McShane and Tarr highlight interactions between infrastructural policy and matters of spatial and social mobility. Throughout both surveys, the horse surfaces physically and culturally as sentient being and industrial motor, as economic product, commodity, and consumer, thus unsettling binary distinctions between nature and culture, animal and machine. The concluding chapters further point to the gradual substitution of the horse with alternative technologies at the start of the twentieth century and, subsequently, to the shifting sociocultural emphasis on the horse's role as companion and status symbol. Sherry Olson's (2017) more concise and localised survey of the horse's impact on the industry and infrastructure of Montréal complements these perspectives on equine North America.
Ralph Turvey (2005), Hannah Velten (2013), and Neil Ward (2024) investigate the horse's place in Britain's industrial and cultural history. In "Horse-Traction in Victorian London," Turvey draws on a range of historical records as he surveys the economic valuation and use of harness horses in Victorian London's transport and industrial sectors. Considering a range of professional contexts that relied on equine labour, Turvey's article illustrates the diverse ways in which humans and horses interacted with and acted upon one another and the social and urban landscapes of Victorian Britain. Covering a temporal span from the Middle Ages to the present, Velten's Beastly London offers a comprehensive and nuanced historical survey of the place of nonhuman animals more generally in England's capital city. Chapter Two of the monograph dedicates a large section to the use and treatment of working horses in the nineteenth century. Considering concerns with equine welfare alongside legal, infrastructural, and social developments, the chapter paints a vivid picture of Victorian London's equine industry. In subsequent chapters, Velten charts a concise history of sports such as horseracing, polo, and showjumping, and discusses equine performances in hippo-dramas and circuses. A valuable contextual resource, Velten's study thus sheds light on the ubiquitous and multifaceted presence of the horse in Victorian industry, culture, and society. Similar in scope to Beastly London, Ward's Horses, Power, and Place positions the horse as agent at the centre of historical inquiry to examine the spatial and socio-economic landscapes of Britain from the pre-industrial era to the present. Integrating critical approaches from geography and animal studies, Ward effectively illuminates the horse's significance and impact beyond geographical, temporal, and disciplinary boundaries. The author furthermore highlights the horse's constitutive role in the expansion of the British empire, the assertion of colonial power, and the formation of imperially marked notions of British national identity.
This theme of colonial-imperial practice and ideology is also taken up by Timothy Winegard's The Horse (2024) and Susanna Forrest's The Age of the Horse (2016). Winegard posits the horse as an ambivalent instrument of Indigenous resistance as well as colonial power. As such, he demonstrates, the horse fundamentally reshaped not only the ecosystems of (North) America but also the social, cultural, and economic orders of its Indigenous populations. Forrest dedicates a large section of her study to the wild horse of the Victorian imagination and contrasts Romanticised depictions of equine "wildness" in the art and literature of the long nineteenth century to the industrial realities of equine labour. Throughout The Age of the Horse, Forrest highlights the ubiquity of this labour in all aspects of Victorian life and its central role in systems of resource extraction. Winegard, too, focuses on the equine world of Victorian Britain and points to the influence of animal welfare movements, including the impact of Anna Sewell's 1877 novel Black Beauty, across the Atlantic. Because both authors move beyond the temporal and geographic bounds of Victorian England, they offer valuable insights into the horse's place in nineteenth-century Britain as well as in the currents of empire.
As Forrest effectively demonstrates, the roots of Victorian Britain's equine-dependent society can be traced to premodern agriculture, industry, and notions of breed. The lasting impact of the latter is discussed in greater detail by Richard Moore-Colyer (1995) and Margaret Derry (2006). In "Aspects of Horse Breeding," Moore-Colyer considers reports from various regulatory bodies, including the Royal Commission of Horse Breeding, the Royal Agricultural Society, and the Remount Department, to shed light on the interdependent relationship between equine breeding practices and the socio-industrial transformation of Victorian Britain in a globalised world. Throughout Horses and Society, Derry emphasises intersections between culture, science, and economic interest as she surveys discourses surrounding type, breed, and pedigree within and beyond nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century Britain. Like Moore-Colyer, she points to the significant impact of transatlantic trade and military demands for horses on breeding practices and regulations. In the final section of her monograph, Derry furthermore discusses the increasing significance of veterinary professions and prominence of equine welfare movements at the turn of the century as they are reflected in art and literature.
The Horse in Culture, Society, and Sport
The Victorian horse's significance extends beyond its role as a more-than-human facilitator of urbanisation and industrialisation; and equine infrastructures are inextricably linked to the cultural and social orders in which they are situated. Accordingly, the texts reviewed in this section focus more closely on matters of gender, class, and national identity to emphasise the horse's literal and symbolic agency and import. While Harriet Ritvo's foundational work The Animal Estate (1987) elucidates the connected discourses surrounding nonhuman animals in nineteenth-century dynamics of culture, class, and empire on a broader scale, Ulrich Raulff's Farewell to the Horse (2017) and Kristen Guest and Monica Mattfeld's edited collection Equestrian Cultures (2019) offer valuable entry points for a specifically equine-focused inquiry. Exploring themes of "Science and Technology," "Commodification and Consumption," and "National Identity," Equestrian Cultures explores the multifaceted and complex ways in which equine-human relationships and the conditions and discourses of modernity mutually affected one another. While the editors' introduction provides a succinct overview of these dynamics, the included articles draw on a diverse range of contextual and theoretical frameworks to elucidate the ongoing, interdisciplinary significance of equestrian scholarship. Focusing broadly on nineteenth-century Europe and North America, Raulff's monograph views historical documents alongside literary and cultural representations of the horse to examine its "ancient, pivotal role as a converter or conveyor of energy, of knowledge and of pathos" (18). The author uses equine-based infrastructures as a starting point to elucidate the horse's literal and symbolic function in negotiations of military and imperial power and of gendered and class hierarchies. Positing the horse as a central actor in the advancement and circulation of knowledge, Raulff further investigates intellectual and artistic engagements with the horse, ranging from veterinary science, taxidermy, and dissection to equestrian sports, notions of breed, and animal intelligence. Finally, he relates equine welfare movements to nineteenth-century preoccupations with morality and empathy.
John Stokes (2010) investigates how intersections between equine infrastructure and social class manifest themselves in literary texts such as Henry Mayhew's London Characters, Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray, and Arthur Conan Doyle's The Sign of Four. Using the socio-cultural connotations of the hansom cab as a framework, Stokes demonstrates that, more than a mere mode of transportation, the cab functions on a literary level as a liminal space of "social comedy, sexual encounter and urban adventure" (245). Drawing on reports from Dublin and London newspapers, Sherra Murphy (2020) foregrounds the horse's role as status object in the middle and upper classes of Victorian society as leisure equestrianism, specifically in the form of horse shows, gained in popularity. She relates this phenomenon to increasingly capitalist social orders, arguing that "[t]he archival records for horse shows demonstrate the strengthening ties between the pursuit of leisure and the growth of consumer culture, which became more tightly entwined as the century progressed."
When it comes to leisure equestrianism, the horse's embeddedness in issues of class, ethnicity, and gender is however perhaps most strikingly reflected in nineteenth-century horseracing culture. Mike Huggins (2002, 2007, 2012, 2013) has contributed a broad body of research on the history of horse racing in Britain from the late-seventeenth to the mid-twentieth century. Focusing specifically on the long nineteenth century, his monograph Flat Racing and British Society 1790–1914 explores the practice and significance of horseracing across boundaries of class, gender, and region. Huggins offers here a detailed survey of diverse forms of involvement in horseracing, highlighting their socio-political potential throughout. In this context, he considers the increasing commercialisation and legislation of horseracing through regulatory bodies like the Jockey Club and through local authorities and individual meetings as well as the emergence of oppositional movements across various social groups. In a 2002 chapter focusing on "Middle-Class Racing ‘Revolutionaries' in Nineteenth-Century England," Huggins further illuminates the racing industry's role in the rise of the middle classes in Victorian Britain. Looking in particular at the impact of the Weatherby and Tattersall families, he demonstrates that while the consistent presence of upper-class members in the sport guaranteed its outward respectability and perpetuated an illusion of social hierarchy, the increasing involvement of the middle classes in administrative, betting, training, and breeding practices played a key role in reshaping Britain's socio-economic landscape. In "Gentlemen, Horses, and the Turf," Moore-Colyer (1992) surveys the development of horseracing culture in nineteenth-century Wales. While he draws on a variety of historical examples to illustrate the logistical and economic dimensions of horseracing and breeding, the sociopolitical significance of equestrianism surfaces here too as a key insight of his analysis: The physical and legislative control over the more-than-human world, as it manifests in equestrian sports, breeding practices, and notions of pedigree, he argues, became a central means for members of the upper classes to reassert and maintain their privileged social position. This, as John Pinfold (2008) evinces, holds true not only for the aristocratic and upper classes that dominated the horse racing cultures of nineteenth-century Britain, but also for the newly rich of the Edwardian era, for whom participation in equestrian sports became a key aspect of social mobility.
Pinfold further points to issues of excess and gambling that permeated equestrian sports in Victorian England, a topic that John Gleaves (2012) discusses in greater detail. In his article "Enhancing the Odds: Horse Racing, Gambling and the First Anti-Doping Movement in Sport, 1889–1911," Gleaves examines critiques of equine doping in a range of legal disputes and newspaper articles from Britain and North America. Throughout his discussion, he highlights the embeddedness of such critiques in debates surrounding substance abuse and the legitimacy of scientific interventions into "nature" as well as in negotiations of national identity and economic interest. Their primary concern with economic fairness, Gleaves emphasises, renders nineteenth-century doping discourses distinct from contemporary stances that emphasise the integrity of the sport itself.
Despite such critical voices, the racecourse then appears in Victorian Britain as a space in which both social and moral bounds are temporarily suspended — a dynamic that Huggins (2013) illustrates effectively through his analysis of William Powell Frith's 1858 painting Derby Day. At the same time, however, engagements with horseracing and gambling are oftentimes charged with discriminatory notions of ethnic and racial otherness. In his 2012 article "Racing, Betting, Anti-Semitism and English Jewry 1800–1939," Huggins critically examines the representation of Jewish people in a range of journalistic, literary, and cultural texts to reveal the embeddedness of antisemitic attitudes in nineteenth-century horseracing culture and, particularly, in anti-gambling advocacy. Jessica Dallow's (2019) contribution to Equestrian Cultures offers a North American perspective on such dynamics: In "Narratives of Race and Racehorses in the Art of Edward Troye," Dallow sheds light on the conflation of racial and equine otherness in Edward Troye's equine portraiture to demonstrate how the use of slave labour in the thoroughbred racing and breeding industries of the antebellum Southern United States simultaneously unsettled and reinforced racial and social hierarchies.
Focusing on issues of gender, Alison Matthews David (2002) and Erica Munkwitz (2021, 2024) examine the place of women in equestrian sports from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth centuries Britain. Matthews David's "Elegant Amazons" considers a range of nineteenth-century periodical texts and photographs to elucidate the mutual constitution of equine and human identities through specifically female equestrian fashion. In her monograph Women, Horse Sports, and Liberation, Munkwitz highlights the liberating potential of female equestrianism in the shifting gender and class dynamics of an expanding empire. At once reinforcing and unsettling Victorian cultural and social orders, female involvements in equestrian sports surface throughout her study as a key factor in the emergence of a distinct British national identity within and beyond Europe, as an instrument for the assertion and justification of imperial power, and as an important facilitator of women's rights movements. Building on the latter aspect, her more recent article "‘Shequestrians:' Riding Mistresses, Female Sport Coaches, and Equestrian Instructors in Britain, 1730–1930" explores how the increasing commercialisation of female riding instruction throughout the long nineteenth century transformed female equestrian practices as well as the notions of gendered difference that underlay them.
Moving beyond the realm of equestrian sports, Gina Dorré (2016), and Elsie Michie (2017) explore how class- and gender-related anxieties are negotiated and mediated through the literary figure of the horse. In Victorian Fiction and the Cult of the Horse, Dorré situates the works of authors such as Charles Dickens, Mary Elizabeth Braddon, Anna Sewell, and George Moore within diverse socio-cultural discourses, ranging from concerns about industrial and economic transformations to controversies surrounding female fashion and equine welfare. Through her readings, Dorré effectively demonstrates how the equine body functions, on a fictional and nonfictional level, as a ubiquitous, if often subliminal, locus of socio-cultural negotiation, at once embodying and unsettling hegemonic notions of masculine agency and feminine domesticity. In a similar vein, Michie examines George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, and Elizabeth Gaskell's narrative depictions of horses and of "men on horseback" (164) in particular. By relating these portrayals to nineteenth-century engagements with evolutionary theory, particularly sexual selection, Michie reveals their implicit critiques of previously naturalised hierarchies of class, gender and species, highlighting the depth of the horse's embeddedness in broader socio-cultural negotiations of power.
The Equine Subject: Animal Welfare and Posthuman Perspectives
Just as the horse's indispensable and ubiquitous presence in Victorian society gave way to diverse forms of human-horse interaction, it facilitated new understandings of and engagements with the equine subject. Esther Fiona Harper (2018) and Nancy Henry (2019) both highlight the ambivalent status of the racehorse in the equestrian cultures of Victorian Britian. Harper's doctoral dissertation Fast Horses: The Racehorse in Health, Disease, and Afterlife, 1800–1920 critically examines the material cultures and healthcare practices surrounding thoroughbreds in Britain's horseracing industry. Through an in-depth survey of racehorse training and management and of veterinary and scientific engagements with equine health in the long nineteenth century, Harper demonstrates that although the thoroughbred was, on a macro-level, understood as a financial asset and commodity, accounts of individual human-equine encounters oftentimes constitute the racehorse as social being and feeling subject. Harper furthermore hones in on farriery and hoof care debates to exemplify the increasing cultural concerns with equine welfare beyond the racehorse in nineteenth-century Britain. Drawing on animal studies and thing theory, the final chapter of Fast Horses examines literary engagements with the horse's life trajectory alongside various material forms of equine memorialisation, including for instance taxidermy, hoof trophies, skeletal models, and marked graves. Such practices, Harper demonstrates, not only presented a means to pay tribute to the relationship between horse and human owner. Especially in the case of racehorses, they often served to immortalise the horse's achievements, extending its ambivalent valuations beyond its death. In "Horse-Racing Fraud in Victorian Fiction," Henry too posits this intersection of economic interest in the horse as object and moral interest in the horse as subject as a central feature of Victorian horseracing culture. Particularly attentive to the narrative representation of equine perspectives, Henry examines fictional portrayals of horse racing fraud, in which the horse becomes the vehicle as well as the physical victim of economically or socially motivated sabotage. Through her reading, the author evinces that a critical engagement with such texts not only offers important insights into the diverse issues of wealth and class inequality that characterise nineteenth-century equestrianism; read within an animal studies framework, they draw attention to the equine subject's positionality and experience and thus to the ethical issues underlying equestrian sports then and now.
Hilda Kean (1998) and J. Keri Cronin (2018) consider equine welfare advocacy within broader discourses and movements surrounding animal rights and suffering in nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century Britain and North America. Both authors, in this context, underscore the intersection of animal welfare advocacy with diverse progressive and humanitarian efforts and highlight the importance ascribed to "the process of witnessing cruelty" (Cronin 20) within such campaigns. Kean's Animal Rights views the shifting cultural and symbolic valuations of working and domestic animals in light of philosophical, artistic, and scientific movements of thought. Considerable sections of the monograph are devoted to initiatives surrounding the treatment of cab horses in nineteenth-century London as well as to the shifting valuations of the horse in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century warfare. In Art for Animals, Cronin investigates how visual media, ranging from paintings and illustrations to photography and film, functioned in animal welfare campaigns to unsettle binary distinctions between human and nonhuman beings, thereby encouraging a more humane treatment of nonhuman animals on an individual as well as legislative level. Among the examples that the author discusses are a number of initiatives that focus specifically on equine welfare: Chapter two looks to filmic, photographic, and artistic critiques of Britain's intra-European horse export industry in the early twentieth century, and subsequent chapters consider various speculative engagements with the horse, including, for instance, depictions of the working horse in The Punch magazine, W. L. Duntley's painting Why Not?, Anna Sewell's Black Beauty, and Mary Howitt's Our Four-Footed Friends. Kathryn Miele (2009), in similar vein, examines the attempts of periodical writers to foster empathy with working horses in Victorian London. Miele effectively illustrates how such texts reflect on scientific and ethical negotiations of nonhuman subjectivity and suffering. Addressing, for instance, the cognitive and emotional capabilities of nonhuman animals, the use of bearing reins on cab horses, and the place of the nonhuman other within Christian concepts of morality, they advocate for a more humane treatment of horses.
Moving from physical to "narrative labour," Sinan Akıllı (2023) combines posthumanism, animal studies, and biosemiotics to pinpoint the horse's impact on the emergence of the English novel as a distinct literary form. In "The Rise of the Novel," Akıllı considers the works of Henry Fielding, Jane Austen, and Emily Brontë to illustrate the horse's central role in the constitution of plot, character, and narrative structure as well as in negotiations of English national identity. In "The Agency and the Matter of the Dead Horse in the Victorian Novel" (2019), he examines Thomas Hardy and George Eliot's literary treatment of dead horses in Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Silas Marner. By integrating ethical and material engagements with the horse in the Victorian era, Akıllı argues, they imbue the horse with a post-mortem narrative agency, highlighting the inherent interdependency of human and equine subject within and beyond the realm of fiction.
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Created 17 September 2025